Scientific work “Superluminal Signals in Quantum Optics”, B. A. Veklenko, Y. I. Malachov, Shi Nguyen-Kuok

Scientific work “Superluminal Signals in Quantum Optics” published in the book “Theory and Applications of Physical Science”. Volume 1 published in September 2019. Author of scientific works: Prof. D.Sc. B. A. Veklenko, Assoc. Dr. Y. I. Malachov, Prof. Aca. D.Sc. Shi Nguyen-Kuok.

This book covers all areas of physical science. The contributions by the authors include superluminal signals, quantum electrodynamics, Heisenberg and Schrödinger representations, adiabatic hypothesis, Einstein-Maxwell equations, exact solutions, Kerr–Newman black holes, Newman–Janis algorithm, Mittag-Leffler function, time-varying capacity function, convolution operation, Laplace transform, fractional derivative, microstructure, electron, photon, heat, energy, heat capacity, heat balance, losses coefficient, thermal conductivities, photons, quantum electrodynamics, Green’s functions, chaotic system, simulation, circuit model, analog circuit implementation, superluminal signals, quantum electrodynamics, excited atoms, etc.

The video introduces the scientific work “Superluminal Signals in Quantum Optics” of Book Publisher International

The scientific work “Superluminal Signals in Quantum Optics” is in chapter 2 of this book and is the result of theoretical and experimental research by 03 Russian scientists: Prof. D.Sc. B. A. Veklenko, Assoc. Dr. Y. I. Malachov, Prof. Aca. D.Sc. Shi Nguyen-Kuok.

Theoretically and experimentally the superluminal signals arising at passage of an electromagnetic pulse through thermally excited media are investigated. It is shown that the equations of quantum electrodynamics solved by standard methods explain the appearance of such signals as a consequence of fluctuation properties of secondary quantum fields. It is indicated that quantum averages from operators of electric strength and magnetic strength in these signals are equal to zero. The field energy is different from zero. Such signals have no classical analogues. The effective superluminal velocity of the laser beam after it crosses the cylindrical parallel layer of thermally excited atoms has been calculated. The results of experiments to measure the effective superluminal velocity of the beam passing a cylindrical layer of air inside a hot metal tube are given. Quantitative agreement of theoretical and experimental data is stated.

See scientific work: Superluminal Signals in Quantum Optics

WIPO Guide to Using Patent information

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Introduction

Access to technology information has expanded rapidly in recent years, as a result of the increasing availability of technical documents in digital format and the progressive development of electronic means of distribution and retrieval. As the quantities of technical information available to the public have grown, so too have the challenges of finding relevant information from which useful knowledge can be extracted.

How does the patent system work?

A patent has two important functions:

• Protection. A patent allows the patent holder to exclude others from commercially exploiting the invention covered by the patent and as specified in the claims in a certain country or region in which the patent was granted and for a specific period of time, generally not exceeding 20 years from the filing date.

• Disclosure. The publication of a patent and in many countries patent applications give the public access to information regarding new technologies in order to stimulate innovation and contribute to economic growth.

Protection

A patent application may be filed via one of the following routes:

• National. An application for a patent is generally filed at a national patent office and a patent for an invention may be granted and enforced only in that country in which patent protection is requested, in accordance with the law of that country. Corresponding applications covering the same invention can be filed in accordance with the respective national patent laws in different countries on an individual country-by-country basis.

• Regional. In some regions, regional patent applications may be filed at a regional patent office, for example, the African Regional Intellectual Property Organization (ARIPO) or the European Patent Office (EPO). Regional patent applications have the same effect as applications filed in the member states of the respective regional patent agreement. In certain regions, patents are granted centrally as a «bundle» of national patents. In some other regions, a single regional patent granted by the regional patent office has effect on the entire territory of that region. In order to validate regional patents in the Member States, submission of a translation of the granted patent into the national language may be required.

• International. International applications may be filed with the national or certain regional patent offices of Contracting States of the Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT) or the International Bureau of the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) by any resident or national of a PCT Contracting State. A single international patent application has the same effect as national or certain regional applications filed in each Contracting State of the PCT. Although the major part of the patent application procedure is carried out within the international phase, a patent can only be granted by each designated State within the subsequent national phase.

Although procedures vary amongst patent offices, the following illustrates a very generalized procedure for granting a patent:

• Filing. An applicant chooses a filing route, i.e. national, regional or international, and files an application. The initial filing is considered the “priority filing” from which further successive national, regional or international filings can be made within the “priority period” of one year under the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property.

• Formal examination. The patent office ensures that all administrative formalities have been complied with, e.g., that all relevant documentation is included in the application, and that a filing fee has been paid.

• Prior art search. In many countries, but not all, the patent office carries out a search of the prior art, i.e., of all relevant technical information publicly known at the time of filing of the patent application or when applicable, at the time of the priority filing. Using extensive databases, expert examiners draft a “search report”, which lists relevant prior art.

• Publication. In most countries, the patent application is published 18 months after the priority date, i.e., after the filing date or the priority filing. In general, a patent is also published once granted.

• Substantive examination. Not all offices conduct substantive examination and some only do so if requested within a specified time. The examiner checks that the application satisfies the requirements of novelty and inventive step (non-obviousness) against the prior art listed in the search report. Further, he/she checks whether the invention is susceptible of industrial application and within the scope of the patentable subject matter. In many countries, prior art searches and substantive examinations are conducted consecutively.

• Grant/refusal. In general, if the patentability requirement is not met, the applicant is given an opportunity to amend the application. If the examination process reaches a positive outcome, the patent is granted and the office issues a certificate of grant. Otherwise, the patent application is refused.

• Opposition. Within a specified period, many patent offices allow third parties to oppose the granted patent on the grounds that it does not in fact satisfy patentability requirements. In some countries, third party observations and opposition may also be allowed in a certain time frame before the grant of a patent.

• Appeal. In general, decisions of grant or refusal of a patent and decisions of opposition boards can be challenged before an administrative body or a court.

Disclosure

The second important function of the patent system is disclosure, i.e., a patent gives the public access to information regarding new technologies in order to stimulate innovation and contribute to economic growth. Though the protection offered by a patent is territorial, covering only the jurisdiction in which the patent has been granted, the information contained in a patent document is global, available as disclosure to any individual or organization worldwide, thus allowing anyone to learn from and build on this knowledge.

Why use patent information?

Patent information is an important resource for researchers and inventors, entrepreneurs and commercial enterprises, and patent professionals. Patent information can assist users to:

  • Avoid duplicating research and development effort;
  • Determine the patentability of their inventions;
  • Avoid infringing other inventors’ patents;
  • Estimate the value of their or other inventors’ patents;
  • Exploit technology from patent applications that have never been granted, are not valid in certain countries, or from patents that are no longer in force;
  • Gain intelligence on the innovative activities and future direction of business competitors;
  • Improve planning for business decisions such as licensing, technology partnerships, and mergers and acquisitions;
  • Identify key trends in specific technical fields of public interest such as those relating to health or to the environment and provide a foundation for policy planning.

What information does a patent document contain?

Patent information comprises all information which has either been published in a patent document or can be derived from analyzing patent filing statistics and includes:

  • Technical information from the description and drawings of the invention;
  • Legal information from the patent claims defining the scope of the patent and from its legal status;
  • Business-relevant information from reference data identifying the inventor, date of filing, country of origin, etc.;
  • Public policy-relevant information from an analysis of filing trends to be used by policymakers, e.g., in national industrial policy strategy.

In particular, this information refers to the following:

  • Applicant. Name of the individual or company applying to have a particular invention protected;
  • Inventor. Name of the person or persons who invented the new technology and developed the invention;
  • Description. Clear and concise explanation of known existing technologies related to the new invention and explanation of how this invention could be applied to solve problems not addressed by the existing technologies; specific embodiments of the new technology are also usually given;
  • Claims. Legal definition of the subject matter for which protection is sought or granted; each claim is a single sentence in a legalistic form that defines an invention and its unique technical features; claims must be clear and concise and fully supported by the description;
  • Priority filing. Original first filing on the basis of which further successive national, regional or international filings can be made within the priority period of one year;1
  • Priority date. Date of the first filing from which the one-year priority period for further applications starts.

Source: https://patentscope.wipo.int

1A group of applications based on a single application as described above is referred to as a “patent family.” Identifying the members of a patent family will not only reveal in which countries or regions patent protection is being sought by an applicant, but may also uncover translations of the application in different languages.

The Value of Intellectual Property, Intangible Assets and their assessment

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Kelvin King, founding partner of Valuation Consulting1

Intellectual capital is recognized as the most important asset of many of the world’s largest and most powerful companies; it is the foundation for the market dominance and continuing profitability of leading corporations. It is often the key objective in mergers and acquisitions and knowledgeable companies are increasingly using licensing routes to transfer these assets to low tax jurisdictions.

Nevertheless, the role of intellectual property rights ( IPRs) and intangible assets in business is insufficiently understood.  Accounting standards are generally not helpful in representing the worth of IPRs in company accounts and IPRs are often under-valued, under-managed or under-exploited.  Despite the importance and complexity of IPRs, there is generally little coordination between the different professionals dealing with an organization’s IPR.  For a better understanding of the IPRs of a company, some of the questions to be answered should often be:

  • What are the IPRs used in the business?
  • What is their value (and hence level of risk)?
  • Who owns it (could I sue or could someone sue me)?
  • How may it be better exploited (e.g. licensing in or out of technology)?
  • At what level do I need to insure the IPR risk?

One of the key factors affecting a company’s success or failure is the degree to which it effectively exploits intellectual capital and values risk. Management obviously needs to know the value of the IPR and those risks for the same reason that they need to know the underlying value of their tangible assets; because business managers should know the value of all assets and liabilities under their stewardship and control, to make sure that values are maintained. Exploitation of IPRs can take many forms, ranging from outright sale of an asset, a joint venture or a licensing agreement. Inevitably, exploitation increases risk assessment.

Valuation is, essentially, a bringing together of the economic concept of the value and the legal concept of property. The presence of an asset is a function of its ability to generate a return and the discount rate applied to that return. The cardinal rule of commercial valuation is: the value of something cannot be stated in the abstract; all that can be stated is the value of a thing in a particular place, at a particular time, in particular circumstances. I adhere to this and the questions ‘to whom?’ and ‘for what purpose?’ must always be asked before a valuation can be carried out.

This rule is particularly significant as far as the valuation of intellectual property rights is concerned. More often than not, there will only be one or two interested parties, and the value to each of them will depend upon their circumstances. Failure to take these circumstances, and those of the owner, into account, will result in a meaningless valuation.

For the value of intangible assets, calculating the value of intangible assets is not usually a major problem when they have been formally protected through trademarks, patents or copyright. This is not the case with intangibles such as know-how, (which can include the talents, skill and knowledge of the workforce), training systems and methods, technical processes, customer lists, distribution networks, etc. These assets may be equally valuable but more difficult to identify in terms of the earnings and profits they generate. With many intangibles, a very careful initial due diligence analysis needs to be undertaken together with IP lawyers and in-house accountants.

There are four main value concepts, namely, owner value, market value, fair value and tax value. Owner value often determines the price in negotiated deals and is often led by a proprietor’s view of value if he were deprived of the property. The basis of market value is the assumption that if comparable property has fetched a certain price, then the subject property will realize a price something near to it. The fair value concept, in its essence, is the desire to be equitable to both parties. It recognizes that the transaction is not in the open market and that vendor and purchaser have been brought together in a legally binding manner. Tax value has been the subject of case law worldwide since the turn of the century and is an esoteric practice. There are quasi-concepts of value which impinge upon each of these main areas, namely, investment value, liquidation value, and going concern value.

Methods for the Valuation of Intangibles

Acceptable methods for the valuation of identifiable intangible assets and intellectual property fall into three broad categories. They are market-based, cost-based, or based on estimates of past and future economic benefits.

In an ideal situation, an independent expert will always prefer to determine a market value by reference to comparable market transactions. This is difficult enough when valuing assets such as bricks and mortar because it is never possible to find a transaction that is exactly comparable. In valuing an item of intellectual property, the search for a comparable market transaction becomes almost futile. This is not only due to lack of compatibility, but also because intellectual property is generally not developed to be sold and many sales are usually only a small part of a larger transaction and details are kept extremely confidential. There are other impediments that limit the usefulness of this method, namely, special purchasers, different negotiating skills, and the distorting effects of the peaks and troughs of economic cycles. In a nutshell, this summarizes my objection to such statements as ‘this is rule of thumb in the sector’.

Cost-based methodologies, such as the “cost to create” or the “cost to replace” a given asset, assume that there is some relationship between cost and value and the approach has very little to commend itself other than ease of use. The method ignores changes in the time value of money and ignores maintenance.

The methods of valuation flowing from an estimate of past and future economic benefits (also referred to as the income methods) can be broken down into four limbs; 1) capitalization of historic profits, 2) gross profit differential methods, 3) excess profits methods, and 4) the relief from royalty method.

1. The capitalization of historic profits arrives at the value of IPR’s by multiplying the maintainable historic profitability of the asset by a multiple that has been assessed after scoring the relative strength of the IPR. For example, a multiple is arrived at after assessing a brand in the light of factors such as leadership, stability, market share, internationality, trend of profitability, marketing and advertising support and protection. While this capitalization process recognizes some of the factors which should be considered, it has major shortcomings, mostly associated with historic earning capability. The method pays little regard to the future.

2. Gross profit differential methods are often associated with trademark and brand valuation. These methods look at the differences in sale prices, adjusted for differences in marketing costs. That is the difference between the margin of the branded and/or patented product and an unbranded or generic product. This formula is used to drive out cashflows and calculate value. Finding generic equivalents for a patent and identifiable price differences is far more difficult than for a retail brand.

3. The excess profits method looks at the current value of the net tangible assets employed as the benchmark for an estimated rate of return. This is used to calculate the profits that are required in order to induce investors to invest in those net tangible assets. Any return over and above those profits required in order to induce investment is considered to be the excess return attributable to the IPRs. While theoretically relying upon future economic benefits from the use of the asset, the method has difficulty in adjusting to alternative uses of the asset.

4. Relief from royalty considers what the purchaser could afford, or would be willing to pay, for a license of similar IPR. The royalty stream is then capitalized reflecting the risk and return relationship of investing in the asset.

Discounted cash flow (“DCF”) analysis sits across the last three methodologies and is probably the most comprehensive of appraisal techniques. Potential profits and cash flows need to be assessed carefully and then restated to present value through use of a discount rate, or rates. DCF mathematical modeling allows for the fact that 1 Euro in your pocket today is worth more than 1 Euro next year or 1 Euro the year after. The time value of money is calculated by adjusting expected future returns to today’s monetary values using a discount rate. The discount rate is used to calculate the economic value and includes compensation for risk and for expected rates of inflation.

With the asset you are considering, the valuer will need to consider the operating environment of the asset to determine the potential for market revenue growth. The projection of market revenues will be a critical step in the valuation. The potential will need to be assessed by reference to the enduring nature of the asset, and its marketability, and this must subsume consideration of expenses together with an estimate of residual value or terminal value, if any. This method recognizes market conditions, likely performance and potential, and the time value of money. It is illustrative, demonstrating the cash flow potential, or not, of the property and is highly regarded and widely used in the financial community.

The discount rate to be applied to the cashflows can be derived from a number of different models, including common sense, build-up method, dividend growth models and the Capital Asset Pricing Model utilizing a weighted average cost of capital. The latter will probably be the preferred option.

These processes lead one nowhere unless due diligence and the valuation process quantifies remaining useful life and decay rates. This will quantify the shortest of the following lives: physical, functional, technological, economic and legal. This process is necessary because, just like any other asset, IPRs have a varying ability to generate economic returns dependant upon these main lives. For example, in the discounted cash flow model, it would not be correct to drive out cash flows for the entire legal length of copyright protection, which may be 70 plus years, when a valuation concerns computer software with only a short economic life span of 1 to 2 years. However, the fact that the legal life of a patent is 20 years may be very important for valuation purposes, as often illustrated in the pharmaceutical sector with generic competitors entering the marketplace at speed to dilute a monopoly position when protection ceases. The message is that when undertaking a valuation using the discounted cash flow modeling, the valuer should never project longer than what is realistic by testing against these major lives.

It must also be acknowledged that in many situations after examining these lives carefully, to produce cashflow forecasts, it is often not credible to forecast beyond say 4 to 5 years. The mathematical modeling allows for this in that at the end of the period when forecasting becomes futile, but clearly the cashflows will not fall ‘off of a cliff’, by a terminal value that is calculated using a modest growth rate, (say inflation) at the steady-state year but also discounting this forecast to the valuation date.

While some of the above methods are widely used by the financial community, it is important to note that valuation is an art more than a science and is an interdisciplinary study drawing upon law, economics, finance, accounting, and investment. It is rash to attempt any valuation adopting so-called industry/sector norms in ignorance of the fundamental theoretical framework of valuation. When undertaking an IPR valuation, the context is all-important, and the valuer will need to take it into consideration to assign a realistic value to the asset.

Source: wipo.int

1 Valuation Consulting is dedicated to the valuation of intangible assets. Kelvin King is the author of The Valuation and Exploitation of Intangible Assets, which was published by EMIS in June, 2003. Email: kelvin@valconsulting.co.uk Website: www.valuation-consulting.co.uk

Introduction to Electronic Waste (E-Waste) Recycling

Electronics waste, commonly known as e-scrap or e-waste, is the trash we generate from surplus, broken, and obsolete electronic devices. Electronics contains various toxic and hazardous chemicals and materials that are released into the environment if we do not dispose of them properly. E-waste or electronics recycling is the process of recovering material from old devices to use in new products.

Frequently Replaced Electronics

With such a very short useful life, electronics transition into e-waste at a rapid pace. In fact, it was estimated that close to 500 million unused cell phones are accumulating in people’s homes. Globally, a cell phone is sold to around 25 % of the population annually, and every year millions of electronic devices such as mobile phones, TVs, computers, laptops, and tablets reach the end of their useful life.

What Happens to Devices at the End of Their Useful Life

Unfortunately, the majority of these electronic products end up in landfills, and just 12.5 % of e-waste is recycled. According to a UN study, over 41.8 million tons of e-waste was discarded worldwide, with only 10 %–40 % percent of disposals appropriately done. Electronics are full of valuable materials, including copper, tin, iron, aluminum, fossil fuels, titanium, gold, and silver. Many of the materials used in making these electronic devices can be recovered, reused, and recycled—including plastics, metals, and glass.

In a report, Apple revealed that it recovered 2,204 pounds of gold —worth $40 million—from recycled iPhones, Macs, and iPads in 2015.

Benefits of E-Waste Recycling

Recycling e-waste enables us to recover various valuable metals and other materials from electronics, saving natural resources (energy), reducing pollution, conserving landfill space, and creating jobs. According to the EPA, recycling one million laptops can save the energy equivalent of electricity that can run 3,657 U.S. households for a year. Recycling one million cell phones can also recover 75 pounds of gold, 772 pounds of silver, 35,274 pounds of copper, and 33 pounds of palladium.

On the other end, e-waste recycling helps cut down on production waste. According to the Electronics TakeBack Coalition, it takes 1.5 tons of water, 530 lbs of fossil fuel, and 40 pounds of chemicals to manufacture a single computer and monitor. 81% of the energy associated with a computer is used during production and not during operation.

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Gold recovery old electronics

The Electronics Recycling Process

Electronics recycling can be challenging because discarded electronics devices are sophisticated devices manufactured from varying proportions of glass, metals, and plastics. The process of recycling can vary, depending on the materials being recycled and the technologies employed, but here is a general overview.

Collection and Transportation: Collection and transportation are two of the initial stages of the recycling process, including for e-waste. Recyclers place collection bins or electronics take-back booths in specific locations and transport the collected e-waste from these sites to recycling plants and facilities.

Shredding, Sorting, and Separation: After collection and transportation to recycling facilities, materials in the e-waste stream must be processed and separated into clean commodities that can be used to make new products. The efficient separation of materials is the foundation of electronics recycling. Shredding the e-waste facilitates the sorting and separation of plastics from metals and internal circuitry, and waste items are shredded into pieces as small as 100 mm to prepare for further sorting. A powerful overhead magnet separates iron and steel from the waste stream on the conveyor and then prepares it for sale as recycled steel. Further mechanical processing separates aluminum, copper, and circuit boards from the material stream—which now is mostly plastic. Water separation technology is then used to separate glass from plastics. The final step in the separation process locates and extracts any remaining metal remnants from the plastics to purify the stream further.

Preparation For Sale as Recycled Materials: After the shredding, sorting and separation stages have been executed, the separated materials are prepared for sale as usable raw materials for the production of new electronics or other products.

Electronics Recycling Associations

ISRI (the Institute of Recycling Industries): ISRI is the largest recycling industry association with 1600 member companies, of which 350 companies are e-waste recyclers.

CAER (Coalition for American Electronics Recycling): CAER is another leading e-waste recycling industry association in the U.S. with over 130 member companies operating around 300 e-waste recycling facilities altogether throughout the country.

EERA (European Electronics Recyclers Association): EERA is the leading e-waste recycling industry association in Europe.

EPRA (Electronic Products Recycling Association): EPRA is the leading e-waste recycling industry association in Canada.

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Current Challenges for Electronics Waste Recycling Industry

The E-waste recycling industry has a significant number of challenges, which the primary one being exporting to developing nations. Exporting e-waste, including hazardous and toxic materials, is leading to serious health hazards for the workers working for dismantling electronic devices in countries without adequate environmental controls. Currently, 50 %–80 % of e-waste that recyclers collect is exported overseas, including illegally exported e-scrap, which is of particular concern. Overall, the inadequate management of electronics recycling in developing countries has led to various health and environmental problems.

Although the volume of e-waste is increasing rapidly, the quality of e-waste is decreasing. Devices are getting smaller and smaller, containing less precious metal. The material values of many end-of-life electronic and electrical devices have therefore fallen sharply. Electronics recyclers have suffered due to sagging global prices of recycled commodities, which have decreased margins and resulted in business closures.

Another problem is that as time goes onmany products are being made in ways that make them not easily recyclable, repairable, or reusable. Such design is often undertaken for proprietary reasons, to the detriment of overall environmental goals. Organizations such as ISRI have been active in promoting policies to broaden the range of authorized companies allowed to repair and refurbish smartphones to avoid their needless destruction. The current rate or level of e-waste recycling is definitely not sufficient. The current recycling rate of 15 % –18 % has much room for improvement as most e-waste still is relegated to the landfill.

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Electronics Recycling Laws

Currently, 25 U.S. states have laws mandating statewide e-waste recycling, and several more states are working toward passing new legislation and improving the existing policy. State e-waste recycling laws cover 65 % of the U.S. population, and some states, including California, Connecticut, Illinois, and Indiana, e-waste is banned from landfills.

Resource: www.thebalancesmb.com

Reportage VTV1 21/10/2019: Plasma technology for waste treatment of VinIT Institute of Technology

Recently, a group of Vietnamese scientists has just tested Plasma technology for waste treatment.

Plasma torch has temperatures between 10,000 and 20,000 ° C. Plasma generators with high-power up to 400 kW are also the core technology of waste treatment process, which was successfully tested by scientists at VinIT Institute of Technology in September.

With this result, Vietnam has officially registered its name in the group of very few countries with advanced science and technology of the world such as the United States, Canada, Russia, etc. can master and develop Plasma technology for Waste treatment, including toxic and very toxic waste. Especially, the stage of separating waste in Vietnam is still very limited.

Plasma technology for waste treatment will lay the foundations for establishing a new industry – the recycling industry to recover rare resources for the country. When Plasma technology is mastered, replication of advanced waste treatment models across the country will also be possible to deploy on a large scale. This is one of the most effective solutions to tackle the waste problem in Vietnam.

Source: VTV.vn

Fundamentals of Electrochemical Phenomena

Because chemical reactions are usually associated with the rearrangement of charged particles such as electrons and atomic nuclei, chemical and electrical phenomena are closely linked. Chemical transformation occurring owing to the external applied electrical current or leading to generation of electrical current is studied in electrochemistry. Electrochemistry studies the mutual conversion of chemical and electrical forms of energy. Electrochemical reactions are of great practical importance. Example: chemical current sources such as batteries, electrolysis is used in industries, electroplating is used for the protection of steel products from corrosion, for decorative purposes. Electrochemical processes are the basis of many modern methods of analysis.

So what is the difference between chemical and electrochemical reactions? Let us consider the following chemical reaction:

If this reaction is a chemical process, it will be characterized by some peculiarities. The chemical reaction is only possible in a case of collision of the reactants with each other. Hence, the need for contact between reacting species is the first feature of the chemical transformation. The transfer of electrons from one particle to the other or from the reducing agent (Zn) to the oxidant (Fe2+) is possible only at the time of the collision. The electron path will be very short and this is the second feature of the chemical process. Collisions can occur at any point in the reaction volume and in all relative positions of reacting species, so the electronic transitions can be performed in any direction in space. Randomness of particle collisions and electron transfer are the third feature of the chemical reaction. As a result of these peculiarities, the energy effect of the chemical reaction is expressed in the form of release or absorption of heat. It is necessary to set certain conditions in the system to convert energy from chemical reactions to electrical energy, i.e., to create an electrochemical process.

In electrochemical processes, the transfer of electrons from one reactant to another is performed over a significantly long path. It is explained by the fact that the production and consumption of electric energy is always associated with the passage of electric current, which is a stream of electrons traveling along the same path. Therefore, spatial separation of the reactants (reducing and oxidizing agents) is required for electrochemical processes to keep electrons flow from reducing to oxidizing agents. In this regard, direct contact between reactants should be replaced with the two metal plates connected to each other by a metallic conductor. To ensure the continuous passage of electric current through the reactionary space, charge carriers having a high ionic conductivity should be present or added in the reactionary solution. Thus, a system called an electrochemical cell is required to conduct electrochemical reactions. Thus, a system called an electrochemical cell is required to conduct electrochemical reactions.

Wastewater treatment by electrochemical methods is based on conducting the electrolysis process. To conduct the electrolysis an external source of electrical energy is required to generate and maintain a proper potential and as a result electrochemical reactions at anode and cathode, which are placed into the electrochemical cells (for example, into industrial electrolyzer). Michael Faraday was the first scientist who investigated the relationship between the amount of electric charge Q (current I multiplied by time t) passed through the electrode/electrolyte solution interface and chemical reactions caused by this charge. In 1832 Faraday reported that the amount of electricity required to produce a given quantity of substances does not depend on the electrode size, number of working electrodes, and the distance between electrodes. It was stated that the mass m of the substance liberated at an electrode is directly proportional to the electric charge Q, passed through the electrolyte and directly proportional to the equivalent weight (M/z) of the element for a given amount of electricity:

where k is electrochemical equivalent of a substance, k = M/(F×z), M is molar mass of a substance, 1 F = 1 mol×e = 6.02×1023×e = e×NA = 26.8 A.h/mol = 96,485.33289(59) C/mol is Faraday constant, z is the number of electrons participating in the reaction (valency of ion of the substance).

Michael Faraday together with his friend William Whewell developed a new terminology in electrochemistry. He called conductors immersed in the solution such as the electrodes (earlier they were called poles), introduced the concept of electrolysis (chemical changes associated with the current passage), electrolyte (conductive liquid in electrochemical cells), anode (electrode with oxidation reaction on it), and cathode (an electrode with the reduction reaction on it). The charge carriers in liquids were called ions (from the Greek wanderer); the ions moving to the anode (positive electrode) were called anions and to the cathode (negative electrode) cations. Colloids and suspended solids also can participate in the transfer of electric current; however, due to low mobility, they can carry only an insignificant part of electric current.

Electrochemical equivalent can be used to calculate the amount of reactive substance in the anodic and cathodic processes, such as anodic dissolution of metal, gas evolution at the cathode, and products of EO. Electrochemical equivalent value for the same substance may differ depending on the electrochemical process, in which the substance participates. Let us consider three different reactions of chlorine, hypochlorite, and chlorate electrolytic evolution and anode’s half-reactions:

As can be seen from anode’s reaction the number of electrons participating in the electrolytic formation of chlorine, hypochlorite, and chlorate are equal to 1, 2, and 6 electrons, which means that z = 1, 2, or 6, respectively. Thus, electrochemical equivalents of NaCl for chlorine, hypochlorite, and chlorate formation are equal to z = 58.44/(1×96,485) = 6.1×104 g/C = 0.61 mg/C; 0.3 mg/C; and 0.1 mg/C, respectively.

Faraday’s laws are strictly observed. Observed deviations from Faraday’s laws often associated with the presence of unaccounted parallel electrochemical reactions, such as oxygen evolution reactions, hydrogen peroxide formation, or product recombination reactions. Deviations from Faraday’s law in industrial systems are associated with Faradic current losses appearing as heat or unwanted by-products, loss of material by spraying the solution, etc. The ratio of the actual amount of product (charge/electrons) obtained/spent in electrolysis to the theoretical amount of product (charge/electrons) calculated based on Faraday’s law is typically below one in the technological processes. This relation is called current efficiency (CE; faradaic or coulombic efficiency):

Current efficiency in EO (Electro-oxidation ) processes of organic pollutants can be monitored through the COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand) decay values at a constant current using Eq.

where ΔCOD is the COD decrease during degradation of pollutants at time t and 8 is the oxygen equivalent mass (q equiv-1 ).

J. Gibbs and W. Nernst contributed to the development of electrochemical thermodynamics and particularly to the determination of the nature of electrical potential (voltage) in the electrochemical cell and the balance between electrical, chemical, and thermal energies. The electrochemical potential is determined by the energy of the chemical processes occurring in the electrochemical cells and also depends on their kinetics.

Source: S. Mika, S. Marina. Electrochemical Water Treatment Methods Fundamentals, Methods and Full Scale Applications. Butterworth-Heinemann, pages 15 – 18, 2017.

Fundamental Electrochemical Water Treatment Methods

Electrochemical water treatment is related to the physical-chemical water treatment methods. Electrochemical treatment is characterized by multistage and relative complexity of physical and chemical phenomena occurring in electrochemical reactors (electrolyzers). The mechanism and rate of occurrence of the individual reaction steps are dependent on many factors, which have to be identified to determine the optimal reactor design and conditions for its operation. Based on the physical-chemical properties, electrochemical methods for wastewater treatment applications can be divided into three main categories. They are conversion methods, separation methods, and combined methods (Fig. 1).


FIGURE 1. Classification of electrochemical methods by the mechanism of treatment.

The conversion method provides a change of physical-chemical and phase characteristics of dispersed pollutants in regard to their neutralization, conversion, and removal from the wastewater. The transformation of impurities can undergo a series of successive stages, starting with the electronic interaction of soluble compounds and ending with the change of electrosurface and volume characteristics of suspended substances contained in the wastewater. Electrooxidation, electroreduction, and electrocoagulation are common conversion methods. Electrooxidation and electroreduction are used for water treatment from dissolved impurities such as cyanides, thiocyanates, amines, alcohols, aldehydes, nitro compounds, azo dyes, sulfides, and thiols. Electrochemical oxidation processes lead either to complete decomposition of compounds present in the wastewater to CO2, NH3, water or formation of simple nontoxic substances, which can be removed by other methods. Different insoluble conductive materials such as graphite or mixed metal oxide electrodes (lead dioxide, manganese, ruthenium, iridium, etc., applied to a titanium substrate) are used as anodes. Cathodes are usually made of molybdenum, tungsten alloy with iron or nickel, graphite, stainless steel, and other metals and metal alloys.

Separation methods are used for pollutants concentration in the local volume of the solution without significant changes in their phase or physical-chemical properties. Separation of impurities from water is conducted mainly by electrogenerated gas bubbles in electroflotation or by the power of the electric field, which provides transport of charged particles in the water during electrodialysis.

Combined methods of electrochemical wastewater treatment incorporate one or more conversion and separation methods in one reactor. The electrocoagulation method is based on the electrolysis process using steel or aluminum anodes subjected to electrolytic dissolution. Dissolved iron or aluminum cations pass to the electrolyte solution where they react with pollutants forming flakes and causing flake precipitation. In general, during electrocoagulation pollutants lose their aggregative stability and as a result undergo sedimentation, i.e., phase separation. However, in addition to phase separation, coagulant can cause pollutant transformation. For example, dissolved Fe(II) ions reduce Cr(VI) ions to Cr(III) ions during the coagulation process.

All electrochemical processes take place at the electrodes while passing a direct electric current through the electrolyte solution. Electrochemical methods can be used for drinking water and wastewater treatment. In the case of wastewater treatment, there is a possibility to extract valuable products from water by a relatively simple technological scheme without the use of chemicals. The main disadvantage of these methods is the high energy consumption. Depending on the required effect of water treatment suitable electrochemical method and reactor can be chosen.

Electrolyzers for the electrochemical water treatment can be classified by the following features:

  1. Flow kinetics (continuous or batch);
  2. Hydrodynamic operation (pressurized or nonpressurized);
  3. Reactor type (open, close, diaphragm, or membrane cell);
  4. Movement of water in the interelectrode distance (horizontal, angled, vertical with the ascending and descending water flow);
  5. Type of impact on pollutants (electric field, electrode process, electric discharge or complex effects).

The effectiveness of electrochemical methods is evaluated by a number of parameters such as current density, overpotential, current efficiency, and energy consumption.

Source: S. Mika, S. Marina. Electrochemical Water Treatment Methods Fundamentals, Methods and Full Scale Applications. Butterworth-Heinemann, pages 13 – 15, 2017.